Stone, Elizabeth C. “The Development of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia,” 1:235-248.
Ancient Mesopotamia was essentially an urban civilization, whose political fortunes were reflected in the welfare of its cities. Cities functioned as centers of political administration, places of trade, and seats of deities. One of the major factors that led to the development of cities was the rise of temples. They also served as nexuses to mediate between pastoralists, fishers, and farmers as a place to exchange goods. At the dawn of Mesopotamian history, temples stood alone to regulate all aspects of society. The expansion of territorial boundaries led to disputes over resources and the need for military organization and cities to develop fortifications as secure habitations. The requirements of war also necessitated the development of military arts and leadership, which became an institution competing for power with the temple. The military leaders eventually become the political rulers in competition with the religious authorities. The tension between the royal and religious establishments is seen in the geography of excavated cities. In many locations the temple and palace are at opposite ends of the city, with neither one occupying a central location. The temples are usually located at the periphery of the site to communicate the symbolic distance separating the realms of gods and man, with the rest of the cities divided into districts with separate quarters for artisans, administrators, religious personnel, and military personnel.
